FAULTY ELECTRICAL WIRINGS - PART 3

GOING BACK TO BASICS

FAULTY ELECTRICAL WIRINGS - A CLOSER LOOK
(Third Part of a Series of Six)

By Doods A. Amora, PEE 1821
(January 2008)

4.0: THE SHORT CIRCUIT

To the layman and even in the Philippine media, it is common to misuse "short circuit" to describe any electrical malfunction, regardless of the actual problem.

To the electrical practitioner however, the term short circuit can take two forms: (1) a ‘bolted short’ where a firm metal-to-metal contact is made across a full-thickness section of metal as if they are 'spliced' or 'bolted' together; (2) an ‘arcing short’, where initial metal-to-metal contact is not sustained and current flows through an arc.

* In a ‘bolted short’, heating is not localized at the fault point but is distributed over the entire length of the circuit. A bolted short can readily be created by mis-wiring a circuit and then turning ‘on’ the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker then typically trips before anything ignites.

* Other short circuits are of arcing nature. An ‘arcing short’ results from a momentary contact of two conductors. This causes melting of the material around the contact area. Magnetic forces tend to push the conductors apart - creating sparks as the conductors come apart. After an arcing short, large-diameter conductors can often be seen with a notch on the surface; smaller diameter wires may be severed or vaporized entirely.

What’s in Short Circuit That Can Start a Fire?

The phenomenon called ‘arcing’ is the source of many fires.

Just like a matchstick, the fact that an arc flash is produced at highly elevated temperatures during a short circuit is enough to demonstrate that it could ignite a full blown fire. An arc flash occurs when there’s a fault in the wiring system and the electric current has to move through the air to complete the circuit. If there is flammable material near one of these extremely hot arcs, it can burst into flames, starting a fire.

Arcing Short Circuits may be set-up by any of the following conditions: a) Un-Workmanlike Installation, b) Substandard Electrical Products, c) Circuit Overloading Leading to Insulation Breakdown then Short Circuits, or, d) Insulation Breakdown by External Causes.

But the question is, “how then can a short circuit ignite a fire when over-current protective devices (OCPD’s) are placed there to trip off & interrupt the circuit in these eventualities?”

This observation is of course true, but not quite true all the time…huh?

Short Circuits Created by Mis-Wiring

A circuit breaker interrupting a circuit during the first energization event of an electric system can only happen when there is; in the first place, a mis-wiring that resulted to a bolted short. In this case however, there is not much concern, because most likely, there are engineers or electricians attending to the first energization of the system and problems, whatever they are, are quickly fixed.

And it’s worthy to note the words of Mr. Vytenis Babrauskas, Ph. D., (in his paper entitled “How Do Electrical Wiring Faults Lead to Structure Ignitions” presented in an international conference in London), when he said, “it is, in fact, exceedingly hard to create a fire in branch-circuit wiring from a bolted short”.

So then, there is a big difference between ‘mis-wiring’ and ‘faulty wiring’. Note that in ‘the mis-wired (shorted) circuits’, it won’t allow your circuit to be energized, because as we know, the circuit breaker trips.

On the other hand, in ‘faulty wiring’, it will. And faulty wirings will just be there all the years lurking & waiting for opportune time to go wrong given the right conditions to go wrong!

That’s why faulty wiring is more dangerous than ‘wrong wiring’. It gives people the faulty feeling that the circuits are protected. Browse the web and you’ll find out that it’s also happening to jetliners, military warplanes and even in the Space Shuttles!

Arcing Short Circuits

Several cases of Arcing Short Circuits are caused by un-workmanlike installations. Un-workmanlike installations come in many forms. Nails or screws penetrating into mechanically unprotected wires and cables beneath walls and ceilings are most common scenes..

Poor connections also trigger over-heating, then to arcing short circuit and finally ignition. If a connection is not mechanically tight; it can start to undergo a progressive failure mode. Subsequently even in tight connections, a number of instances like copper-to-aluminum or even aluminum-to-aluminum splicings develop into what they call as “glowing” connections, especially following the popularization of aluminum wiring in residential and mobile home construction in the 1970s. A glowing connection might typically be found in a wall cavity, where the tiny combustibles are close.

While nails or screws injuring the ‘unseen’ wires & cables hidden beneath ceilings or walls are un-workmanlike installations; the mechanically unprotected wires & cables are themselves, un-workmanlike. So the chain of events, all taken together; forms critical situations - leading to electrical accidents. It’s only a matter of time...

So then, a host of other events like rats eating up wire insulations, or circuit overloading leading to insulation breakdown and substandard electrical products that overheat - carbonizing live parts into arcing short circuits are just a few in the list.

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(Pictures Galore: The illustrations above show how an electrical system can progressively go wrong, given the right conditions to go wrong!)

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5) THE INTEGRITY OF DESIGN

But then, a good physical wiring is not a guarantee to a flawless operation as years go by. While the so-called mis-wiring and the quality of installations are forefronts of the master electrician’s job, the design part of the system is the engineer’s responsibility. It’s worthwhile to mention that any good electrical system starts with a good design. That means - an electric system should start from a good engineer, too.

As faults usually don’t happen weeks after energization; the probability of faults in electrical systems increases with age. Faults such as “short circuits” and “ground faults” will most likely happen, whether we like it or not – in the near or distant future. The overlapping root causes & conditions cited herein this article and their domino effects somewhere, somehow lead to faults within the lifetime of the building.

However, there are precautions that prevent faults from developing into disaster proportions. That’s supposed to be the role of electrical design engineers. In other words, what are circuit breakers for?

The OCPD Itself Creating the Fire

But then history tells us that in some events of short circuits, it was the circuit breaker itself that ‘disintegrated’ and ‘exploded’ – in the process, igniting a full-blown fire? Such, is a disgraceful irony when the protective device itself started the fire!

Is it really possible? Of course, yes! Look at the pictures below!

But why…?

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(Frame 1: A severely damaged circuit breaker after interrupting a fault. Why the damage when circuit breakers are supposedly the protection of circuits?)

(Frame 2: Worse condition. The circuit protector exploded while interrupting a fault. Why the explosion?)

(The pictures above are circuit breakers on fire in simulation tests while interrupting single-line-to-ground and short circuit faults. Note that in these cases, the OCPD’s themselves are on fire.)
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Here’s why…

THE MISUNDERSTOOD KAIC

The protective devices commonly found in electrical construction plans & drawings usually indicate only the continuous current ratings but not the interrupting capacities (expressed in KAIC) incumbent in these devices. This brings the breaker interrupting ratings as one of the most taken-for-granted components in system designing. Why is KAIC important?

A circuit breaker has three most important ratings – a continuous current rating, a voltage rating and an interrupting capacity (IC) rating. The KAIC rating is the maximum amount of current that the device will open safely to relieve a fault condition - without injuring itself.

By ‘injury’, it means the condition where after interrupting a fault, the breaker ceased to be operable - or worse, the breaker disintegrated because the fault current is too much for the breaker to handle. It must be remembered that breakers are placed in the system to protect the system itself. What if during a fault, it is the protective device that disintegrated? Isn’t it the design engineer’s lapses?

Well and good, “the installation is operating for five years and no untoward incident like this happened, if it is my fault, why only now?”, says the engineer. Fine.., because in five years time there was no fault!

To recall, circuit breakers are not placed in the system for normal conditions; breakers are expected to perform its intended work during abnormal conditions. Abnormal conditions don’t just happen during the first energization event. They always happen when the installations are going older where faults are lurking as loads are becoming more demanding.

But alas, many designers always miss sizing the OCPD interrupting capacities probably because of the usual assumption that the fault duties on the 230 v system are not necessary! This assumption is however faulty because fault duties vary largely with the size of the source transformer, the system voltage and the impedance of the cables before the points where the fault is subjecting to. For instance, if a 230 v lighting panelboard is receiving supply from a 500 KVA transformer, the three-phase fault duty at its secondary terminals could be as high as 40 kilo-amperes. If the source transformer is 1,500 KVA, the fault duty could be 70 kilo-amperes. In like manner that a 100 KVA three-phase transformer delivers a three-phase short circuit current at 10.0 kilo-amperes. These of course are dependent on the impedance of the transformers employed.

If the subject panelboards are in close proximity to the source transformer, the fault duty can be just a little lower than that at the terminals of the transformer. It is therefore important for the engineer to be aware of this reality, otherwise his design becomes faulty. The design engineer must therefore conduct fault calculations prior to specifying the IC ratings of circuit breakers no matter how small they might be. But then, are electrical engineers in this country specifying IC ratings of circuit breakers? Of course, yes! But a large number of them aren't.

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(The picture above is a Medium Voltage Circuit Breaker after interrupting a short-circuit. Note that this KAIC undersized circuit breaker disintegrated, melted and burst into flames instead of protecting the circuit. Isn’t it faulty electrical wiring?)
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Now note (just in case one may not know it), the circuit breakers commonly used in homes and offices are normally 10 KAIC rated if we talked on the usual American made GE, Westinghouse or Square D. Is 10 KAIC applicable? Maybe yes, but maybe not! It maybe correct in a house connected to a 15, 25 or 37.5 kVA utility transformers. But now in the shopping malls, we can find cheap 5 KAIC, 3.5 KAIC and some brands don’t have any KAIC rating at all. What if the house is in a high-end subdivision with a 1,000 kVA substation? Or a commercial building or condominium with a 1,500 kVA power center?

The pictures showing exploding circuit breakers in this article are presentations of the fact that circuit breakers installed in a system must possess the capability to interrupt a faulted circuit without disintegration. In other words, the circuit breaker must be sized at the correct interrupting ratings.

Now the question is, if the circuit breakers lack the KAIC capability, isn’t it faulty electrical wiring?


THE OCPD OPERATING SPEED

On top of the things discussed above, in some other cases, there are occurrences that although the circuit breaker interrupted the shorted circuit, the circuit conductor nonetheless melted, burned and vaporized, and its flames started the fire? Had it occurred to us, why?

Again, that’s the value of the competent electrical engineer in the design phase of the project.

Let us recall that the purpose of over-current protection is to open a circuit before conductors are damaged when an over-current condition exists. In fact, the OCPD’s are placed not to protect the loads, but to protect the circuit conductors. During short circuits, currents through the conductors are tremendously high that it must be removed quickly before the damage point of conductor insulation is reached.

Conductor damage points or the so-called “withstand limits” as established in the formula “i-squared x t”. The greatest damage done to components by a fault current occurs in the first half-cycle (or more precisely, “the first major loop” of the sine wave). Heating of components to very high temperatures will cause deterioration of insulation, vaporization or even explosion. Tremendous magnetic forces between conductors can crack insulators and loosen or rupture bracing structures in Panelboards, MCC’s & Switchgears.

Let me elaborate further the conductor withstand limit “i-squared x t”.

It has been established that the levels of both thermal energy and magnetic forces are proportionate to the square of current. Thermal energy is proportionate to the square of “RMS” current; maximum magnetic fields to the square of “peak” current. If a short circuit current is 100 times higher than normal load current, its increased heating effect equals (100) squared or 10,000 times higher than that of the normal current. Thus, it is extremely important, particularly since present-day distribution systems are capable of delivering high level fault currents.

Now, granting that the OCPD’s KAIC requirements are complied with. Is it enough? The answer is, NO! Because even if the circuit breaker doesn’t disintegrate, the conductors probably will!

Two actions of the OCPD’s are therefore important in protecting circuit wires & cables. These are: a) the speed of the clearing, and, b) how much ‘let-through’ current it allows to flow into the conductor. Therefore, when selecting an over-current protective device to protect a conductor, these questions must be answered:

a) Is the ampere rating of the OCPD matched with the “net ampacity” of the conductor? (This takes care of the overload condition).

b) Will the KAIC Rating of the OCPD be able to withstand the fault duty at the point of use? (This takes care of the possible disintegration of the circuit breaker).

c) Will the OCPD protect the conductors from disintegrating? (This takes care of the disintegration & vaporization of circuit conductors).

NEC 110.10 says that although conductors do have allowable ampacity ratings, they also have maximum allowable “short-circuit current withstand” ratings. Damage ranging from slight degradation of insulation to violent vaporization of the conductor metal can result if the short-circuit withstand is exceeded.

Scenario: Given a # 12 THW wire carrying a normal load of 10 amperes, and the short circuit current happens to be 35,000 amperes, if the operating speed of the circuit breaker is 1 cycle (1/60 or 0.0167 s), the amount of energy that the conductor will experience before the opening of the circuit shall be: 35,000 x 35,000 x 0.0167!

Do you think the # 12 wire can withstand 35 kA for a period of 0.0167 second? Maybe yes…, maybe not. What if not? In this case, one may consult available information such as the “Short-Circuit Characteristics of Cable” by ICEA (Insulated Cable Engineers Association, Inc.) & IEEE Color Books.

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(The above picture is a laboratory-simulated short-circuit to portray protection without due consideration to wire withstand limits. Note the melting of the insulation & the conductors and the subsequent flames.)

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Note that the mechanical over-current protective device (conventional circuit breaker) opening time effect should be known along with the available short-circuit current and cable withstand data to determine the proper conductor or OCPD that must be used. That’s why in cases of unusually high available fault current in the system, it is best to check sizes of conductors & corresponding type of OCPD’s to confirm whether the installation is safe from cable damage and where the overcurrent protective devices especially the slower mechanical OCPD’s are fit to be installed in the system.

As pointed out earlier, the key here is the speed of clearing by the breaker. If the breaker is slower than the 'short time withstand' of the wire, cable or bus; then the conductor disintegrates before the breaker completes its operation. And you need a much bigger conductor - much bigger than you can imagine for the usual ampacity requirements. If not practical both economically and physically, then means to limit the "let-through" current must be sought.

When we say ‘unusually high fault duty’, a good cue that warrants this review is a fault level of more than 25,000 amperes. It could mean that the source transformer may be too large for the application, say 1,000 KVA or 2,000 KVA for 240v and 480v respectively. In this case, a detailed fault calculation with all the system impedances must be accomplished.

As we now see it, short circuit can be more complicated than what meets the eyes. The truth is, the electrical engineer needs to upgrade his competency on the subject. Unfortunately, we can’t discuss this topic all in this blogsite. Its complexity, breadth and length need a more purposive seminar & training on the subject.


(To be continued… )

Next: “THE INTEGRITY OF ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS”

FAULTY ELECTRICAL WIRINGS - PART 2

GOING BACK TO BASICS

FAULTY ELECTRICAL WIRINGS - A CLOSER LOOK
(Second Part of a Series of Six)

By Doods A. Amora, PEE 1821
(January 2008)

3.0: JUST HOW SINFUL IS ‘FAULTY WIRING’?

Let us first examine the meaning of the word, 'faulty'.

According to the web’s Wiktionary, the word faulty means: “having or displaying non-perfection”; “there’s something not adequate or not acceptable”. The World Book Dictionary likewise says that, 'faulty' means “flawed”, “not in order”, or “there is a defect”.

But a flawed structure although faulty doesn’t always mean that it won’t work for some reason or purpose. Or a defect in the structure doesn’t always mean that it is not ‘habitable’ - at least momentarily.

Just like the makeshift shanties in the squatter areas, are they structurally sound? Apparently not, and they are structurally faulty indeed! But people are living in there and the shanties served their purpose for long years.

But when tremors and earthquakes come, they unmask the real integrity of the structure.

And remember that eight-storey condominium building caught on TV footage while collapsing by itself, even if there were no tremors? Note that the building was only five years old. The question is: Does it mean that because the structure didn’t crumple when occupied five years ago, the structure is not faulty?

To get my points through, here are some scenarios:

Scenario 1: Given a technician on a workbench wiring several circuits aimed at simulating an automated lighting control system for an edifice. Of course, a number of thin wires are crawling like snakes on his workbench. The simulation, by the way, is to confirm that the circuits he designed for the purpose would work.

Now note: if the circuits worked out as intended, then… fine, it should be sort of correct wiring! If it doesn’t work, then the circuits must be wrongly wired, in other terms, “miswired”. Now, if the technician finally got the correct circuits and got the system to work as intended; would the wirings be faulty? No! But maybe, yes!

Please appreciate that the workbench trial of a messy piece of work could not be described as ‘faulty’ because the technician is always there, tending it, and present all the time. More importantly, the wirings would soon be dismantled after the simulation.

But if the same snake-farm-type wirings are put in place as permanent installation - energized all the time, hidden beneath ceilings or walls in the house or building, then the work becomes faulty!

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(Look closely at the burned conductors that ignited the fire in the adjacent wooden structure. Look also how the wires are installed. Are they not faulty wirings? Where are the conduits? If the wires were overloaded, why no circuit breaker ever tripped?)

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Please note that there’s a world of difference between temporary wirings and permanent installations. Temporary wirings are supposed to be dismantled after an objective is achieved. Permanent wirings are destined to be unattended and 'forgotten' after having been installed – meaning, no engineer or technician manning them all the way through eons of time.

So then, it is a different story when permanent installations are set up, because it must conform to the provisions of the Electrical Code. That’s why the Code is there.

Now, if the installations are violations of Code Rules, are they not ‘faulty’? Note gentlemen that the phrases, “non-perfect”, “not adequate”, “not acceptable”, “flawed”, “not in order”, or “there is a defect” are all referring to the provisions of the Electrical Code.

Thus, an installation may be acceptable to the owner but may not be acceptable in so far as the Code is concerned!

But temporaries in man’s habit tend to go permanent! And the Electrical Code and the authorized practitioners are supposed to spearhead the safeguarding of these eventualities. In the USA, a large percentage of household fires and electrocution are caused by injured cords hidden beneath rugs and carpets. And the extension cords by the way, are supposed to be temporary.

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(Can you allow these snake-farm type installations in your own house or building? If so, the house becomes a snake pit and beneath those nice-looking walls and ceilings are mute witnesses of horrible installations! )

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But why the Code seems economically–unfriendly? People say that following the Code Provisions will cost a fortune! Really…? Isn’t it that minimum standards must still stand-out even after any “value engineering” is applied..? What then is the standard?

Scenario 2: Putting it in a different light, can you allow your electrician to just throw electrical wires like spaghetti beneath your house’s ceiling without the benefit of conduits or any of those “approved wiring methods” by the Electrical Code? “But conduits are expensive, Sir. It can’t be seen anyway, and the lights & outlets are working perfectly”.

If so, the house becomes a snake pit and beneath those painted walls and nice-looking ceilings are mute witnesses of horrible installations!

On the other hand, the house or building owner arguably in his right mind won’t allow it! Why? Because “there is a defect” in it, even if it is supposed to be working!

Scenario 3: Can you allow a # 12 THW circuit protected by a 30-ampere breaker in your own house? The installation happened to be ‘neat & workmanlike’ and it did not explode when energized. And, “should there be a short circuit; the 30-amp breaker will surely trip the circuit”. Fine ...

But if one knows about electrical principles, certainly he won’t allow it, even if it did not blow up during its first energization. Why? Isn’t it a clear flawed electrical wiring? Well then, but why faulty when it did not explode when energized? (Remember the usual argument?)

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(First frame: “There’s nothing wrong with it, after the double walling is completed, the panelboard will become flush mounted”. Where are the conduits? “Conduits are not needed because the wires will not be seen, anyway. And the final double walls will make it clean & beautiful to look at.” DO YOU AGREE?)

(Second Frame: This is a 200 A 3PST mains in a commercial building. Note that all sub-feeder circuits are home ran to the main switch. “It’s working for years, so it must be correct!” Really? Can you identify the dangers & the Code violations in this installation? Is it correct to tap small wires into a large fuse? What if the smaller wired circuits got overloaded or had developed short-circuit?)

(Third & Fourth Frames: Please look closely at the pictures. Can you allow these installations in your own house or building? Aren’t they faulty electrical wirings?)

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There you are my friends, after years of accident-less living, loads had multiplied and the circuit conductors may have been overloaded. No breaker trips because the load has not yet reached the tripping threshold of the over-sized circuit breaker. Meanwhile the smaller-capacity conductors may have melted and burned without our knowing. Alas, when we realized the situation, the house had already been on fire!

Can this happen to a new building that has just been energized? No, because the loads in a new house or building will only reach the brink of its capacity in a distant future. Most likely this scenario can happen when the house becomes old and the wirings heavily loaded by then. Note that an “overloaded circuit” is different from a “shorted circuit”.

Let me elaborate…

Going back to its ‘history’, at first the ‘new house’ described above hosted a small family. Later on, the family grew with increasing number of children. As the number of occupants grew, the load swells, too - that’s a fact. As the head of the family got promotions thus becoming more & more affluent, loads increased because more appliances were brought in for family use. Twenty years thereafter, the children then became grown-ups and got married. Extensions and expansions were made on the original house. Then the additional families acquired new sets of appliances, too. All the while, there was no problem because no circuit breaker had ever tripped off, until the fiery realization.

This is also very true to office and commercial buildings. As clients come and go, depending on the clients' business; assorted equipment, appliances, computers, electronic office devices & gadgets, even small welding machines - usually are brought in the leased space. As long as there are convenience outlets, presto, no problem! Who cares about the branch circuits or the feeders?

The example above aims to portray that the effect of the faulty mismatch of the wire with its over-current protective device does not manifest while the house is still young and while the loads are still low. Now, is the flawed mismatch of the OCPD (overcurrent protective device) viz-a-viz the circuit conductor not faulty?

To this author, it’s worthwhile to mention that violations & non-conformances to any country’s Electrical Code whether in design or installation are faulty electrical wirings.

In the USA (just like in the Philippines), most causes of electrically-started fires are faulty wirings done by “do-it-yourselfers”. Why? Because the “do-it-yourselfers” do not even know that an Electrical Code exists!

(To be continued…)

FAULTY ELECTRICAL WIRINGS - PART 1

GOING BACK TO BASICS

FAULTY ELECTRICAL WIRINGS - A CLOSER LOOK

(First Part of a Series of Six)

by Doods A. Amora, PEE

(January, 2008)

Doods’ Note:


[This article may bring some concerns for discussion amongst electrical practitioners because of the diversities in views over the subject. Nonetheless written in the context of “everybody is entitled to his own opinion”; note that this article reflects the author’s position – a position that may later be argued or deliberated upon.

It is hoped however that the full text of the article be read and the author’s points appreciated. After all, this article is an attempt to help clear why buildings burn in the light of situations where electrically-started fires are in focus. This article also intends to show why there’s a real need for competent electrical engineers or practitioners to design electrical systems and for master electricians executing the actual wirings whether for homes, offices, buildings or industrial plants.]

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1.0: INTRODUCTION


For the past five years preceding 2006, an average of 26 fires hit the Philippines daily. In a March 2006 report published by Xinhua News Agency, the Philippines’ Bureau of Fire Protection cited a total of 46,719 fires were recorded nationwide from 2001 to 2005. From 7,213 fires recorded in 2001, the number of reported incidents increased to 10,728 in 2005. The report however did not itemize details as to the breakdown of the causes of these fires. Likewise, no available updates so far are published for year 2006 & 2007.

But more often than not, most fires in Philippine buildings & residences have always been attributed to “faulty electrical wiring”. A month ago, national TV newscasts reported a fire in Iligan City, eating up four homes – this time, the cause given was, “short circuit”. This is just one of the several episodes.

Perhaps, in the monotony of the phrase ‘faulty electrical wirings’; some reporters put it as “short circuit”. After all, said one radio announcer in Cebu City, “short circuits and faulty electrical wirings mean the same”.

Meanwhile, the United States Fire Administration (USFA) accounts that in a typical year, home electrical problems registered 67,800 fires, 485 deaths, and some US$ 868 million in property losses.

While the month of March in the Philippines is red for fires, in the USA, “December is the most dangerous month for electrical fires and fire deaths are highest in winter months which call for more indoor activities and increase in lighting, heating, and appliance use.”

Note that in leading countries, causes of electrically-started fires are classified as: a) faulty distribution wirings (referring to fixed & movable wirings), and; b) electrical appliances (referring to unattended appliances & appliance faults). A web article says that, “In urban areas (USA), faulty distribution wiring accounts for 33% of residential electrical fires. Home faulty electrical wiring causes twice as many fires as caused by electrical appliances”. Other causes of course are non-electrical in nature; topping them is negligence on the part of the house occupants.

Back to the Philippines, frequently tagged as causes of building fires that are electrical in nature are: “faulty electrical wirings” or “short circuits”. Interestingly, most significant building fires in the Philippines usually happen in the month of March – i.e., coinciding with the Fire Prevention Month. From the way it is, it seems that the month of March is flirting with fires…huh?

2.0: IS THERE SUCH A THING AS “FAULTY ELECTRICAL WIRING”?

Apparently, people are accustomed to use the phrases “faulty wirings” and “short circuit” as interchangeably similar. But, is ‘faulty electrical wiring’ the same as ‘short circuit’?

Maybe so, maybe not…

“If the wiring is faulty, why the circuits did not blow off when first energized many years ago? Why only now?” There goes the common line of argument.

The phrase ‘Faulty Electrical Wiring’ has thus triggered reservations even among electrical engineers. Many electrical practitioners believe “substandard installations”, and, “abuse & misuse of electricity” as the reasons for electrically-started fires, and that, “there is no such thing as faulty electrical wirings”.

Of course to this author, the “myth” in ‘faulty electrical wirings’ could be true or not, depending on what intention or which side one is looking at. By the way, if the ‘official’ cause of the fire is tagged as ‘faulty wiring’; the insurance companies in the Philippines pay without fuss. Probably, this could be one of the reasons why faulty electrical wirings became famous or infamous.

[Good wirings, huh?]

But fact is, faulty wirings are real. Even the United States Fire Administration (USFA) recognizes it. And faulty wirings do not appear during the first energization of a circuit. Opposite to the beliefs of many, faulty wirings usually manifest themselves when the building becomes old.

But how can electrical installations became faulty when there was never an electrical problem all these years? But interestingly then, we should note that in the USA, buildings that are 30 years old and older are considered electrical fire hazards. In the Philippines, many are thinking otherwise! Why? Because “if the building has lasted for 30 years, why should it not be electrically safe for the next 20 years?” Again, the common line of argument…

To this writer, in electrical engineering practice, energizing a system successfully doesn’t always mean that they are not faulty. But are the electrical systems we live with today in our homes or offices, have the integrity? Gentlemen, mark the word “integrity”.

Now, the seemingly simple thing is becoming complicated. Let us tackle these subjects one by one.

(To be continued…)

A DATE WITH TRAINING IN FEBRUARY

CENTER FOR STUDIES IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

PRACTICES & STANDARDS

(CESEEPS INTERNATIONAL)

MODULE 1.0:

LOW VOLTAGE SYSTEMS & APPLICATIONS IN INDUSTRIES


SEMINAR INFORMATION:

Date: February 6 – 8, 2008
Venue: SUGBAHAN FOOD CENTER
A. S. Fortuna St, Mandaue City, Philippines


COURSE DESCRIPTION

CESEEPS’ three-day Training Module 1.0 known as “LOW VOLTAGE SYSTEMS & APPLICATIONS IN INDUSTRIES” is the first component of a series of five seminars composing the program, “DESIGN PRACTICES IN INDUSTRIAL ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS”. Accompanying with the course is a 356 – page book, identified as The CESEEPS RED BOOK aimed as a reference handbook for electrical construction, maintenance and design engineers.

(Please click to enlarge pictures)

Module 1.0 deals with the sizing & design process for branch circuits up to the largest low voltage components in an industrial plant, commercial complex or modern high-rise office building scenarios. Deep in content & substance, this module exposes the traditional folklores in circuit designing where provisions of the Philippine Electrical Code, the National Electrical Code, IEEE and other International Standards are cited as reference testimonies.

The module attempts to achieve an over-all system integration of a model medium size-industrial plant or commercial complex in the Philippine & international setting. It discusses in satisfactory details how low voltage electrical systems are designed from scratch i.e., from the remotest branch circuits, to feeders/sub-feeders, distributors/sub-distributors, from motors & group motor circuits, to Motor Control Centers, transformer circuits to distribution configuration and the final integration into the power centers & switchgears. It also covers application of power transformers, LV/LV transformers, low voltage wires & cables, miniature & molded case circuit breakers, LV power circuit breakers and LV Current Limiting fuses.

Eye opener treatments on subjects such as Development of Single Line Diagrams, System Dimensioning, Fault Calculations and System & Equipment Grounding are covered in this module in an effort to make the electrical engineer grow in these particular fields. It also includes a special section on Powering Internet Hotels & I. T. Environments where myths & common errors in practice are given emphasis.

To demonstrate the complete designing process while putting into practice the learnings that can be gained out of this module, one large chapter is incorporated in this work to showcase on how electrical systems designing should be made for a conceptual modern corporate office building.


CONTENTS OF THE COURSE

Chapter 1: Electrical Codes & International Standards – 11 pages
Chapter 2: Sizing Basic Circuits – 42 pages
Chapter 3: LV Feeder & Sub-Feeder Circuits – 19 pages
Chapter 4: Motor Circuits & Motor Control Centers – 44 pages
Chapter 5: The LV/LV Transformer Circuits – 18 pages
Chapter 6: System Sizing & Dimensioning – 22 pages
Chapter 7: System Grounding – 31 pages
Chapter 8: Equipment Grounding – 18 pages
Chapter 9: Powering Internet Hotels & I. T. Environment – 31 pages
Chapter 10: System Design for a Modern Corporate Office Building – 71 pages

(Please click to enlarge pictures)

It is then assured that practice designing with CESEEPS POWER BOOKS SERIES as guide provides the necessary understanding on the real electrical engineering in industrial plants. It is further envisioned that the electrical engineer following through the entire CESEEPS series shall then be equipped with the necessary competencies in the scenario of industrial power systems. This will help catapult the Filipino electrical engineer into the level of a truly world-class technocrat. That’s the greatest legacy that CESEEPS can offer.

This therefore is truly addressing the gap between the academe and the industry.

THE QUALITIES OF SUCCESSFUL LEADERS

THE 8 QUALITIES OF SUCCESSFUL LEADERS
By Duncan Brodie

Effective leadership is what determines whether a business achieves, struggles or falls by the wayside. There are reams of articles, books, programmes and audios available. For me, there are at least 8 qualities that successful leaders have.

1. Responsibility

The best leaders take responsibility for making things happen. We all know just how easy it is to blame external factors and we probably all have done this at some time. You know the scenario. “If only accounts, purchasing, sales and marketing, customer services, etc would do this everything would be okay”. We might even blame the economy, the weather or even the competition. If you want to excel as a leader take responsibility for making things happen.


2. Integrity

Your success depends on others following. People will only follow if they believe they can rely on you to demonstrate high standards, be open, honest and truthful with them. They also expect consistency. When you are consistent (no matter what your leadership style is) people know what to expect.

3. Decision Takers

We all have fears and doubts when it comes to taking decisions. Will it be the right one, what happens if it goes wrong, how will I look or be perceived by others? These are just a few of the questions and dilemmas faced or going through their head. What sets successful leaders apart is their willingness to face fears and take decisions rather than procrastinate. They know that they will get their fair share of decisions wrong and will learn from them.

4. Deal with Facts

Realism is essential if you are to be a successful leader. Realism is about facing up to whatever is going on, rather than expending energy wishing it was different. When faced with decisions, the best leaders will focus on the facts to determine what is realistic. Imagine you are faced with a poorly performing organization. You might wish it could be fixed next month or next week, but the reality might be that it will take months and maybe years.

5. Vision and Inspiration

The most successful leaders have the ability not just to create a vision but to communicate it in an inspiring way. They see the big picture and inspire others to work together to make it happen.

6. Optimism

There are some who are naturally pessimistic, while others are naturally optimistic. Successful leaders are part of the second group. They know that they cannot control every eventuality but they can control how they respond. They focus on solutions, not problems.

7. Resiliency

No matter what you set out to as a leader, there will be set backs, disappointments and failures along the way. The most successful leaders are extremely resilient and when things do not work out as they hoped, they bounce back.

8. Excellence

Excellence in what they do is one of the defining qualities of successful leaders. They have a mindset of continuous improvement. They look for better, smarter ways of doing things. They are continual learners.

While leaders have numerous qualities, making a start on these 8 can get you off to a flying start.

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Duncan Brodie helps professionals to be great managers and leaders. Take the first step to brilliant leadership by signing up for his free monthly newsletter at
http://www.goalsandachievements.co.uk

Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Duncan_Brodie

OIL HITS RECORD $100

Agence France-Presse - 1/2/2008 6:55 PM
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Oil Hits Record 100 Dollars

The price of oil on Wednesday hit 100 dollars a barrel for the first time, providing a new jolt to oil-dependent economies, particularly the United States, dealers said.


On the New York Mercantile Exchange (Nymex) at 1720 GMT, a barrel of "light sweet crude" for February briefly hit 100 dollars per barrel before easing back, up 3.48 dollars to 99.46 dollars from Monday's close.

After flirting with the record twice in November, "we finally hit the 100 dollars barrel oil and we will hit again if supply remains tight compare to demand," said Bart Melek, an analyst with BMO Capital Markets.

In London, Brent North Sea crude for February soared to a record 97.05 dollars per barrel. It later stood at 96.85 dollars, up three dollars from Monday. Markets were closed Tuesday for the New Year holiday.

The surge in oil prices drove US stocks lower. "As crude rallies, stocks continue to slide. The decline is broad-based, considering all sectors other than energy (up 0.5 percent) are posting a loss of 1.0 percent or larger," analysts at Briefing.com wrote.

Phil Flynn, an analyst at Alaron Trading, explained the factors supporting crude prices: "More violence in Nigeria, concerns about stability in Pakistan, oil-inventory expectations and good old-fashioned cold winter weather."

At least 12 people were killed over the New Year in the Nigeria's oil capital Port Harcourt, raising fears that crude output in the oil-producing nation could be further reduced. Gunmen attacked two police stations and a hotel, a military officer in the city said on Wednesday.

"With the military and the militant warlords engaged in a violent tit-for-tat, the risk for oil disruptions in Nigeria remains higher than in the past few months," said Petromatrix analyst Olivier Jakob.

Violence by militants has reduced Nigeria's oil output by about a fifth since the start of 2006. The unrest "raises concerns that a return to chaos could begin to disrupt international oil flows again," said John Kilduff at MF Global.

Elsewhere, an official report due Thursday was expected to show that crude oil inventories in the United States, the world's top energy consumer, have fallen for a seventh week in a row. Falling inventories amid the northern hemisphere winter when demand for heating fuel surges is helping to lift prices.

"Crude prices are drawing some support from (expectations of) a further decline in crude stocks in a weekly US inventories report," said Sucden analyst Andrey Kryuchenkov.

"Oil stocks are near a three-year low, with more withdrawals expected in this Thursday's delayed inventory report," added Kilduff.

Oil prices doubled last year, with New York crude reaching a record high of 99.29 dollars on November 21.

New York prices had briefly approached 98 dollars late last week after the assassination of Pakistan opposition leader Benazir Bhutto.

David Moore, a commodities strategist with the Commonwealth Bank of Australia, said Wednesday that geopolitical tensions in Pakistan and the Middle East had "created a risk premium" for the oil market.